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Nanotech Environmental, Health & Safety: Progress and Priorities

Nanotech Environmental, Health & Safety: Progress and Priorities

Nanotechnology continues to fuel innovative solutions for many of the grand challenges facing our society ranging from the cure for cancer, to the next generation of computing, to solutions for clean water and clean, renewable energy. As nanotechnology has become more prominent, concerns have arisen regarding the Environmental, Health and Safety (EH&S) aspects of nanotechnology. These concerns are fueled by laboratory studies that indicate that certain nanomaterials might cause adverse effects in animals, although to date no EH&S incidents have been linked to any of the hundreds of nanotechnology-enabled products on the market. In response to these concerns, the federal government and industry, building upon their existing authorities and obligations under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the Toxic Substances Control Act have taken the following actions:

EPA, with the support of the nanotechnology industry, is developing a voluntary stewardship program, and consulting with companies on specific nanomaterials;

NIOSH has issued “Safe Approaches to Nanotechnology”, which makes recommendations for interim steps in employing the range of control technologies, work practices, and personal protective equipment demonstrated to be effective with other fine and ultrafine particles

Companies are taking a proactive approach to managing risks in the workplace by implementing engineering controls and training programs.

EHS Standards are being developed and research needs have been identified.

Mechanisms to limit the potential toxicity of these materials are being developed.

To maintain and accelerate this progress, the Federal Government should:

Fund the prioritization of the EH&S research needs identified by the NNI. The NNI has developed a list of EH&S research needs which need to be prioritized using a risk-based approach, with associated costs subsequently determined. This process will require an estimated $1 million.

Fund agencies to execute on high priority research needs. Agencies such as EPA, NIOSH and NIH should be fully funded to bear the costs of executing on the high-priority research needs identified by the process mentioned above. This will require an estimated $100 million.

Support the development of voluntary programs. EPA and NIOSH should receive adequate funding to develop and implement their voluntary programs.

Clarify the application of existing regulatory frameworks to nanomaterials. Agencies should clarify how existing regulations under the TSCA, FIFRA, and other statutes apply to nanomaterials.

Nanotechnology: Old Materials with New Applications

Today nanotechnology is found in approximately 80 consumer products, and over 600 raw materials, intermediate components and industrial equipment items that are used by manufacturers [1]. While this represents a very small percentage of total consumer goods in the marketplace, the products are remarkably diverse and range from tennis balls, clothing, cosmetics and beer bottles to catalytic converters, fuel cells and cancer therapies. It is predicted the nanotech could account for between $1 trillion and $2.6 trillion (~15%) of our global manufacturing output by 2014 [2]. The current low volume of nanotech products provides an opportunity to implement measures that will prevent, or minimize the risk of, adverse effects on human health and the environment.

Nanoparticles themselves are also not a novel substance in our environment. Carbon nanoparticles in the form of carbon black and ultrafine soot have been a growing component of our aerial environment since we began combusting petroleum or coal based fuels. Nanoparticles of gold, used today to make sensors change color, were manipulated (albeit unknowingly) by Venetian glassblowers to make glass change color since the Renaissance.

The many forms of nanomaterials and the diversity of uses makes the process of characterizing risk for new nanomaterials a challenge. However, although some nanomaterials exhibit distinct properties from their macro-sized counterparts, these properties can often be found in other materials that are already known and used. For example, while aluminum at the macro level is extremely widespread and safe (e.g. soda cans, aluminum foil etc.), nanoscale aluminum can be highly explosive. In context, however, the explosive qualities of nanoaluminum are similar to the metal oxide powders commonly used in thermites which are widely deployed in everything from air bags to welding torches. In fact, nanoaluminum embedded in an iron oxide gel results in a “sol-gel” explosive that is much safer to produce and use than thermite [3].

Thus, while nanomaterials can exhibit different properties from macro scale counterparts and are widely diverse in their use and composition, it is important that the risks of nanomaterials be considered in the context of existing materials with similar properties, compositions and exposure levels.

Nanotechnology Promises a Cleaner Tomorrow

Nanomaterials are amongst the most promising new materials for water remediation, cleaner industrial processes and cleaner energy.

Arsenic is widely distributed throughout the earth’s crust and also a by-product of fossil fuel combustion. Through these sources it often finds its way into drinking water. Researchers from the Center for Biological and Environmental Technology at Rice University have developed a means for arsenic removal from drinking water through the use of nano-sized particles. These experiments are significant because arsenic removal technology, as it currently exists, is both expensive and complicated and makes use of high pressure pumps requiring electricity. The new method developed at Rice can be used in areas of the world that do not have reliable electricity or funding, such as Southeast Asia. This new research also opens the door to means of decontaminating drinking water on a household scale without the use of electricity [4].

Chelatech, a company based in Montana, has developed a means of extracting metal from ore with significantly higher yields and better efficiencies than traditional mining techniques. Current extraction techniques use toxic solvents that need to be dumped and require massive energy inputs over long periods of time to extract metals from ore. Chelatech’s method employs molecules that bind specific to the metal being extracted (ligands) tethered to nanoparticles. This uses 20% less energy than current means, extracts more of the targeted metal faster, produces no backend toxics or acids that need dumping and has a smaller footprint [5].

Nanostellar, a company in California has developed a nanomaterial for use in automotive catalysts that significantly decreases the amount of platinum metal required. Given that platinum mining harms the environment, and requires large quantities of ore to yield relatively small amounts of platinum, this translates to a saving not just for the consumer, but for our environment[6].

Nanomaterials have also shown potential as additives to fuel. Oxonica, a U.K. company, produces cerium-oxide nanoparticles which are being utilized as a diesel fuel additive and have resulted in decreased emissions. There is also evidence to show that this is accompanied by an over 6% decrease in fuel consumption [7].

Nanotechnology can also significantly reduce our consumption of energy and thus the pollutants produced by energy production. Nanomaterials are used for lighter materials for vehicles, more efficient light sources, better power transmission materials, innovations in solar and wind power and more effective heating and cooling solutions for housing. One estimate states that eight key nanotechnologies could result in a decrease in annual energy consumption in the U.S. of 14.6% [8].

Mechanisms are Being Developed to Limit Potential Toxicity

To date, there have been no environmental, health or safety related incidents linked to any of the hundreds of nano-enabled products in the marketplace. Most nanomaterials, given their low volume and usage, present a risk of exposure and hazard that is lower or on par with other materials performing the same function. Concern over nanotech EH&S comes from certain studies that have indicated that the use of some nanomaterials might warrant caution. Because of their size, unbound nanomaterials might have greater mobility in the body, in soil and in water [9]. There have also been studies that indicate that some nanomaterials might cause lung inflammation as a result of inhalation [10]. Certain nanomaterials like quantum dots also contain heavy metals which can be toxic [11].

However, there is a growing body of work that shows pathways to reduce or eliminate the potential toxicity of these nanomaterials where it has been identified. For example, the CBEN research facility at Rice University has discovered that the potential toxicity of carbon nanotubes can be significantly reduced by simple modifications to the surface chemistry of the nanotubes [12]; NIOSH research indicates that “for most processes and job tasks, the control of airborne exposure to nanoparticles can most likely be accomplished using a wide variety of engineering control techniques similar to those used in reducing exposures to general aerosols” [13]; and Lawrence-Berkley labs demonstrated that coating quantum dots with polyethylene glycol significantly reduces their genetic toxicity in cells [14]. Nanomaterials can also be processed to reduce their environmental impact. For example, researchers at the University of Oregon have developed a way to synthesize gold nanoparticles without using the toxins benzene and diborane [15] and researchers at Brown University have developed a technique to “wash” carbon nanotubes, removing the bio-available metals they contain [16].

The Nanotech Industry is Proactive about EH&S

Consumer confidence is crucial for the success of the nanotech industry. To ensure that their workplaces and products are safe, nanotech companies are engaging in open and cooperative relationships with regulatory agencies.

NIOSH has issued a guide for safe use and handling of nanomaterials in the workplace, and is working with companies to gather and share knowledge on potential hazards associated with nanomaterials. As part of the NIOSH program, companies such as Altairnano in Reno, Nevada and Luna Innovations in Blacksburg, Virginia have invited NIOSH into their facilities to monitor and evaluate nanomaterial handling techniques and air quality. Smaller companies have also participated. This initiative allows the gathering of data from small companies that find it prohibitively expensive to shoulder the costs of the cutting-edge equipment required to measure nanoparticles. NIOSH used the data collected from Altairnano to provide the company with recommendations on how to improve workplace safety.

EPA is in the process of developing a similar Nanomaterials Stewardship Program that is more broadly focused on the entire lifecycle of nanomaterials and on human health and the environment. The first drafts of this program were made available for public comment, and the nanotech industry played an active role in providing feedback and guidance.

In addition, in a recent survey by the International Council on Nanotechnology, a consortium managed by Rice University, showed that the majority of the surveyed companies that handled nanomaterials had developed a nano-specific EH&S program, were proactive about health and safety training for their employees, used “nano-specific” engineering controls such as fume hoods and glove boxes, provided Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for employees handling nanomaterials, employed cleanrooms to limit the dispersion of their materials, filled out Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) to communicate the potential hazards of their materials to their customers and disposed of nanomaterials as ‘hazardous waste’ through a professional waste-management company [17].

Progress is Being Made in Developing Standards and Research Needs

America is heavily involved in the development of international standards for nanotechnology. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee (TC) 229 on nanotechnologies is an international body developing plans and roadmaps that will advance the efforts to develop globally harmonized standards for nanotechnology. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has established a U.S. Technical Advisory Group (TAG) as its liason to the ISO TC 229. July of 2006, more than seventy-five delegates from sixteen countries gathered for the second plenary meeting of the ISO TC 229 to advance the committee’s efforts. This technical committee approved a U.S.-submitted proposal for a work item addressing occupational safety relative to nanotechnologies. The occupational safety work item will be led by the ISO TC 229 working group on health, safety, and the environment, which is convened by the United States [18].

There has also been considerable progress in concretely identifying what needs to be done to further our fundamental understanding of nanotech EH&S. In September 2006, the NNI released a comprehensive list of EH&S research needs for nanomaterials for public comment [19]. This document covers the research needs for progress in metrology, standards development, terminology and nomenclature, understanding biological responses and exposures to nanomaterials, safely transporting and disposing of nanomaterials, developing means for environmental monitoring and surveillance and in risk management approaches for companies to decide on best practices. The initiatives enumerated in this initiative need to be prioritized using a risk-based approach. The required resources then should be made available so that the research can be conducted.

The NanoBusiness Alliance supports both the NNI and ISO efforts as crucial to furthering our understanding of nanotech EH&S issues.

Recommendations

To maintain the momentum in nanotech EH&S progress and keep pace with the growth of the industry, we recommend that the U.S. government focus on the following:

Fund the Prioritization of the EH&S Research Needs Identified by the NNI. The NNI has developed a list of EH&S research needs which need to be prioritized using a risk-based approach, and have associated costs determined.

The NNCO and the Nanotechnology Environmental and Health Implications (NEHI) committee of the NNI have developed a research needs document. The initiatives listed in this document need to have their costs and required resources determined. These initiatives then need to be prioritized on the basis of a cost-benefit analysis. It has been estimated that this process will require approx. $1 million. We believe that the Board of Environmental Safety and Toxicology (BEST) group at the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a good candidate for conducting this study.

Fully Fund Agencies to Execute on High-Priority Research Needs. Agencies such as the EPA and NIOSH must be adequately funded to execute on identified, high-priority nanotech EH&S research initiatives.

At present, less than four percent of the National Nanotechnology Initiative budget is devoted to researching health and environmental implications. Given what’s at stake, that figure is woefully inadequate. We believe it is imperative that the agencies involved (particularly NIST, NIOSH and EPA) be fully funded to execute on the high-priority initiatives identified by the study mentioned above.

The funding requirements based upon the detailed, bottom-up plan have not been finalized, but several outside estimated have pegged the figure at approximately $100 MM. That figure may seem high, but it is actually a relatively modest investment for risk mitigation.

Support the Development of Voluntary Programs. Agencies with voluntary programs should receive adequate funding to continue the programs.

Nanomaterials are extremely varied even within a particular type. Carbon nanotubes, for example, can have significantly different properties based on differences in their surface chemistry. Research efforts often focus on mixtures or variants of nanomaterials that are not being considered for commercial use. Voluntary programs that engage industry would focus agency efforts on specific materials which are most commercially relevant and most likely to be encountered by workers and consumers. They also allow companies to share data as it is being discovered and thus help ease the burden of a large upfront cost.

Furthermore, tools for measuring exposure in the workplace and in the environment are still very new and thus prohibitively expensive for small and medium sized companies. Voluntary programs such as those undertaken by NIOSH allow these companies to be responsible stewards and help advance our understanding of nanotech EH&S.

Clarify the Application of Existing Regulatory Frameworks to Nanomaterials.

Data is being gathered to inform modifications to the regulatory frameworks for nanotechnology. In the interim however, it is important for agencies such as the EPA to provide guidance on how the existing frameworks are going to be interpreted and applied to nanomaterials that are currently being produced and introduced to the market.

Footnotes

[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. “External Review Draft of Nanotechnology White Paper.” Pg 3.

[2] Source: October 2004 Lux Research report “Sizing Nanotechnology’s Value Chain.”

[3] ] Lawrence Livermore National Labs. 2000. “Nanoscale Chemistry Yields Better Explosives.”

http://www.llnl.gov/str/RSimpson.html

[4] Yavuz, C.T., Yean, S., Shipley, H., Cong, L., Yu, W.W., Falkner, J.C., Kan, A., Tomson, M.B., Colvin, V.L. ““The Effect of Nanocrystalline Magnetic Size on Arsenic Removal”. Science and Technology of Advanced Materials (2006/December )

[5] Chelatech, Inc. http://www.chelatech.biz/technology.htm

[6] Nanostellar. “Clean Energy and Clean Air with Cost Reduced Nanocatalysts” http://www.nanostellar.com/06242004.html

[7] Oxonica. Envirox Case Study. http://www.oxonica.com/energy/energy_envirox_casestudy.php

[8] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. External Review Draft of Nanotechnology White Paper. Pg 21.

[9] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. External Review Draft of Nanotechnology White Paper. Pg 35-39.

[10] Jia, J.G. et. al. 2005. “Cytotoxicity of Carbon Nanomaterials” Environ. Sci. Technol. 39:1378-1383.

[11] Derfus, A.M. et. al. 2004. “Probing the Cytotoxicity of Semiconductor Quantum Dots.” Nano Letters. 4(1):11-18.

[12] C. M. Sayes, J. D. Fortner, W. Guo. D. Lyon, A. M. Byd, K. D. Ausman, Y. J. Tao, B. Sitharaman, L. J. Wilson, J. B. Hughes, J. L. West, V. L. Colvin “The Differential Cytotoxicity of Water-Soluble Fullerenes.” Nano Letters., 4 (2004): 1881-1887.

[13] CDC/NIOSH. July 2006. “Approaches to Safe Nanotechnology: An Information Exchange with NIOSH.” Pg. 33.

[14] Zhang T, Stillwell JL, Grion D, Ding L, Elboudwarej O, Cooke PA, Gray JW, Alivisatos AP, Chen FF “Cellular effect of high doses of silica-coated quantum dot profiled with high throughput gene expression analysis and high content cellomics measurements.” Nano Lett., 2006 Apr; 6 (4):800-8.

[15] Warner, M. G.; Hutchison, J. E. “Formation of linear and branched nanoassemblies of gold nanoparticles by electrostatic assembly in solution on DNA scaffolds,” Nat. Mater. 2003, 2, 272-276.

[16] In conversations with R.H. Hurt and A. Kane. Brown University. 2007. Pending publication.

[17] UC Santa Barbara for ICON. November 2006. “A Review of Current Practices in the Nanotechnology Industry.”

[18] American National Standards Institute website. http://www.ansi.org/standards_activities/standards_boards_panels/nsp/overview.aspx?menuid=3

[19] NNI. 2006. “Environmental, Health and Safety Research Needs for Engineered Nanoscale Materials.”